Swine Day, 2007

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Open Access
An evaluation of an enzyme blend (natuzyme®) in diets for weanling pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T16:30:07Z) Bergstrom, J.R.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; jnelssen; dritz; jderouch; goodband
Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of an enzyme blend (Natuzyme®) on nursery pig growth performance. In Exp. 1, a total of 210 pigs (initially 13.6 lb) were used in a 35-d experiment to evaluate the effect of increasing levels of Natuzyme® (0, 0.035, and 0.05%) on weanling pig performance. Natuzyme® was added to either a negative or positive control diet as a 2 × 3 factorial to form six dietary treatments. The negative control diet was a corn-soybean meal-based diet containing 12.5% soy hulls and no antibiotics. The positive control diet was a corn-soybean meal-based diet without soy hulls, and contained a feed-grade antibiotic (Neo-Terramycin with 140 g of neomycin and 140 g of oxytetracycline per ton). Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted to treatment at weaning. Diets were fed in two phases from d 0 to 14 and d 14 to 35. For d 0 to 14, ADG and d 14 weight tended to improve (P<0.08) by feeding the positive control diets with a feed-grade antibiotic. There were also trends for improved (quadratic, P<0.09) ADG, ADFI, and d 14 weight with increasing Natuzyme®. There were no differences in performance from d 14 to 35. For the overall trial (d 0 to 35), ADG and d 35 weight tended to be improved (linear, P<0.09; and quadratic, P<0.07; respectively) for pigs fed increasing Natuzyme® and for pigs fed the positive control diets (P<0.07 and P<0.08, respectively) compared with pigs fed the negative control. In Exp. 2, a total of 180 pigs (initially 14.0 lb) were used in a 35-d experiment to further evaluate the effects of increasing Natuzyme® in diets with or without an antibiotic. Natuzyme® (0, 0.35, and 0.05%) was added to either a negative or positive control diet as a 2 × 3 factorial to form six dietary treatments. The negative control diet was a corn-soybean meal-based diet without a feed-grade antibiotic. The positive control diet was similar to that of the negative control diet, however, it contained a feed-grade antibiotic (Neo-Terramycin with 140 g of neomycin and 140 g of oxytetracycline per ton). Pigs were blocked by weight, and at weaning, randomly allotted to treatment with two dietary phases (d 0 to 14 and d 14 to 35). From d 0 to 14, pigs fed the positive control diet had improved (P<0.01) ADG, F/G, and d 14 weight compared to pigs fed the negative control. Average daily feed intake tended to be greater (P<0.06) for pigs fed the positive control diets. Also, pigs fed increasing Natuzyme® had improved ADG, F/G, and d 14 weight (linear, P<0.05). From d 14 to 35, pigs fed increasing Natuzyme® had poorer F/G (linear, P<0.05). Overall (d 0 to 35), ADG, ADFI, and d 35 weight were improved (P<0.01) for pigs fed the positive control compared to the negative control diet. When the observations for pigs fed the positive control diets (diets containing feed-grade antibiotic) in both experiments were combined, ADG from d 14 to 35 was improved (linear, P<0.06 and quadratic, P<0.02) with increasing Natuzyme®. Also, pigs fed increasing Natuzyme® had improved ADFI from d 14 to 35 (linear, P<0.03 and quadratic, P<0.01). Overall (d 0 to 35), ADG, ADFI, and d 35 weight were improved (linear and quadratic, P<0.05) by including Natuzyme® in the diet. In conclusion, pigs fed diets containing a feed-grade antibiotic had improved growth performance. The addition of Natuzyme® to corn-soybean meal-based diets also improved pig performance, particularly when included in diets containing a feed-grade antibiotic. However, in these studies, there did not appear to be a benefit to feeding more than 0.035% Natuzyme®.
Open Access
Neonatal fc receptor mRNA expression in gastrointestinal tissues from pigs fed meal or pelleted diets with or without irradiated and non-irradiated spray-dried animal plasma
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T16:29:40Z) Groesbeck, C.N.; Burkey, T.E.; Minton, J. Ernest; Tokach, Michael D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Dritz, Steven S.; orcid.org/0000-0002-9150-169X; dritz; goodband; mtokach; jderouch; jnelssen
The neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) participates in intracellular trafficking of IgG and the maintenance of circulating IgG. The relationship between the FcRn and IgG may also augment host defense immunosurveillance. The current studies evaluated FcRn mRNA from intestinal tissues in fetal pigs and FcRn mRNA in weaned pigs fed meal or pelleted diets with or without irradiated or non-irradiated spray-dried animal plasma. In Exp. 1, fetal pigs were obtained at d 55 and 70 of gestation (n = 5 fetuses/gestational age) and total RNA was isolated from intestinal tissues for quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) to determine mRNA for FcRn. The FcRn transcripts were observed in all samples, and greater levels of FcRn mRNA were observed in d 55 fetuses compared to d 70 fetuses. In Exp. 2, weaned pigs were used in an 11-d growth assay to determine the effects of feeding meal and pelleted diets with irradiated or non-irradiated spray-dried animal plasma (AP 920) on FcRn expression in intestinal tissues. Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted in a 2 × 2 factorial to one of four dietary treatments. Main effects were diet form (meal or pellet) and either irradiated or non-irradiated spray-dried animal plasma. Jejunal, ileal, and cecal tissues were collected from 24 pigs at the conclusion of the growth assay. Total RNA was isolated to quantify relative mRNA expression of FcRn. The FcRn mRNA transcripts were observed in all tissues. The FcRn mRNA was more abundant (P<0.02) in pigs fed the non-irradiated plasma compared with the pigs fed irradiated plasma. The FcRn mRNA was more abundant (P<0.05) in pigs fed the meal diets compared with the pigs fed pelleted diets. In conclusion, these data suggest that fetal and weanling pig tissues have FcRn mRNA present in the jejunal, ileal, and cecal sections of the small intestine. These data also indicate that FcRn varies with age in pigs. Diet form (meal or pellet) and irradiation of spray-dried animal plasma affects the expression of FcRn in weanling pigs.
Open Access
Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and the insulin-like growth factor (igf) system in early pregnancy in pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T16:27:50Z) Brazle, A.; Rathbun, Theresa J.; Johnson, B.; Davis, Duane L.; davis
The IGF system of growth factors, receptors and binding proteins functions from early in pregnancy. Recent evidence indicates improved embryo survival in gilts fed supplemental omega-3 fatty acids beginning before conception. Here we report effects of supplementing a corn-soybean meal diet (control) with a marine source of protected omega-3 fatty acids (PFA, 1.5% of diet) on mRNA expression for IGF-I, IGF-II, IGF Binding Protein-3 (IGFBP-3) and IGFBP-5 in the porcine gravid uterus. The PFA (Gromage™) contained equal amounts of eicosapentanoic (EPA) and docosahexanoic (DHA) acids and replaced corn in the diet beginning when gilts were approximately 170 d old (n = 13/treat-ment). Gilts were artificially inseminated at approximately 205 d of age. Conceptus and endometrial samples were collected on d 11, 15, and 19 of gestation. All gilts were pregnant. In the conceptus, message for IGF-II and IGFBP-3 increased (P<0.001) from d 15 to d 19, while there was an increase (P < 0.001) in IGF-I and IGFBP-5 from d 11 to 15 and a decrease (P<0.001) to d 19. In the endometrium, message for IGF-I was stable over the interval, but message for IGF-II and IGFBP-5 were increased by d 15 and IGFBP-3 by d 19 (P<0.01). There were trends for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation to increase endometrial IGF-II (P = 0.09) and IGFBP-5 (P = 0.12) on d 15. In the d-19 conceptus, embryonic but not extraembryonic IGF-I mRNA tended to be greater (P = 0.13) for PFA compared to control gilts. During d 11 to 19 the conceptus is elongating, attaching to the uterus, and the embryonic disc is differentiating from a homogenous tissue to form the tissues and organs of the adult. One mechanism for omega-3 fatty acid effects in early pregnancy could involve epigenetic effects on mRNA expression for the IGF and IGFBP proteins.
Open Access
Validation of flank-to-flank allometric equations in predicting weight of lactating sows and lactation weight change
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T16:01:42Z) Sulabo, R.C.; Tokach, Michael D.; Wiedmann, E.J.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; dritz; goodband; jderouch; jnelssen
The objectives of this study were to validate the use of flank-to-flank measurement in predicting weight of lactating sows and to determine the accuracy of the developed models in estimating lactation weight change. A total of 70 lactating sows (PIC Line 1050) were used in this study. Flank-to-flank measurement and body weight were measured on each individual sow after farrowing and at weaning. Flank-to-flank measurement and weight of lactating sows was positively correlated (R2 = 0.61; P<.0001) with the following equation: BW0.33, kg = 0.0371 x Flank-to-flank (cm) + 2.161. Weights of sows post-farrowing and at weaning were lower (P<0.03) when predicted with the previous allometric model developed from growing pigs and sows than their actual weights or weights predicted using the lactating sow model. Likewise, absolute residuals for post-farrowing and weaning weights using a previous allometric model developed from growing pigs and gestating sows were greater (P<0.02) than those of the lactating sow model. There were no differences (P<0.89) between the predicted weights using the lactating sow model and their actual weights. There also were no differences between the actual average weight loss (P<0.14) and the predicted loss using the lactating sow model. Using the model previously developed with growing pigs and gestating sows resulted in 15.5 lb (P<0.007) greater than the actual average weight loss. In conclusion, flank-to-flank measurement can be used as a predictor of weight of lactating sows, with the relationship having less accuracy than those used for growing-finishing pigs, gestating sows, and boars. The pig allometric equation cannot be used to estimate weights of lactating sows and lactation weight change. The developed lactating sow model was more appropriate in estimating weights and weight loss at the herd level, but needs to be validated on other sows before use can be recommended.
Open Access
An evaluation of dextrose, lactose, and whey sources in phase 2 starter diets for weanling pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:46:32Z) Bergstrom, J.R.; Groesbeck, C.N.; Benz, J.M.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; jnelssen; dritz; jderouch; goodband
Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of various dextrose, lactose, and whey sources on weanling pig performance. In Exp. 1, a total of 228 pigs (initially 17.1 lb) were used in a 14-d experiment. There were six treatments consisting of a control (corn-soybean meal diet) or the control diet with 7.2% lactose, 7.2% dextrose anhydrous, 7.2% dextrose monohydrate, 10% feed-grade whey, or 10% food-grade whey. Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted to treatment after being fed SEW and Transition diets for the first seven days post-weaning. Overall, ADG and d 14 weight were improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed lactose or food-grade whey when compared to pigs fed feed-grade whey. There were no other differences in ADG or d 14 weights among the treatments. Average daily feed intake was improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed lactose, dextrose monohydrate, or food-grade whey when compared to those fed feed-grade whey. Feed efficiency was improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed food-grade whey rather than dextrose monohydrate. For the economic analysis, pigs fed the control diet had the lowest (P<0.01) cost per pound of gain, followed by pigs fed dextrose monohydrate, dextrose anhydrous, feed-grade whey, lactose, and food-grade whey. Margin-over-feed cost was improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed the control diet rather than the diets containing lactose, dextrose anhydrous, or either whey source. In Exp. 2, a total of 352 pigs (initially 17.1 lb) were used in a 14-d experiment to evaluate seven commercial whey sources. There were eight treatments consisting of a corn-soybean meal-based control diet and seven diets containing 10% whey, each of a different whey source. Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted to treatment after being fed SEW and Transition diets for the first five days post-weaning. Overall, ADG and d 14 weight were improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed whey sources A and E when compared to the control and sources B and D. Pigs fed whey sources C, F, and G had intermediate ADG. Average daily feed intake was greater (P<0.05) for pigs fed whey source E rather than the control or whey sources B, C, D, and G. Feed efficiency was improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed whey source A rather than the control. Pigs fed the remaining whey sources had intermediate F/G. For the economic analysis, pigs fed the control diet had the lowest cost per pound of gain (P<0.01). Margin-over-feed cost was improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed the control diet rather than the diets containing whey sources B, D, and G. Pigs fed whey source A had intermediate MOF that was also greater (P<0.05) than that of pigs fed whey sources B and D. In conclusion, differences in the growth performance of pigs fed various whey (or lactose) and dextrose sources exist. The quality, cost, and relative feeding value of lactose sources should be considered when formulating diets for nursery pigs. In some cases, especially with the current high price of dried whey, feeding a Phase 2 diet containing no added source of lactose may be a more economical option despite the slight reduction in growth performance.
Open Access
An evaluation of astaxanthin as a nutraceutical growth promoter in starter diets for weanling pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:45:59Z) Bergstrom, J.R.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Tokach, Michael D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; jnelssen; mtokach; dritz; jderouch
A nursery study was conducted at the KSU Swine Teaching and Research Farm to evaluate the effect of increasing dietary astaxanthin (0, 5, 10, and 25 ppm) on weanling pig performance. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid found in various plants, algae, and seafood that exhibits antioxidant and potential anti-inflammatory properties that may be beneficial during times of stress and reduced immunity, such as weaning. A total of 210 pigs (initially 12.6 lb) were used in the 28-d experiment. Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted to one of five dietary treatments. Pigs were fed simple corn-soybean meal-dried, whey-based diets during Phase 1 (d 0 to 14); and corn-soybean meal diets in Phase 2 (d 14 to 28). Treatments consisted of a basal diet for each phase without added feed-grade antibiotic, or the basal diet with 5, 10, or 25 ppm added astaxanthin without added feed-grade antibiotic; or the basal diet with a feed-grade antibiotic (Neo-Terramycin with 140 g of neomycin and 140 g of oxytetracycline per ton). For the d 0 to 14 (Phase 1) period, ADG and F/G were improved (P<0.05) by including a feed-grade antibiotic in the diet. Average daily gain and F/G of pigs fed astaxanthin was not different than control pigs. Pigs fed a feed-grade antibiotic during Phase 1 were heavier (P<0.05) on d 14 than were pigs fed 0, 5, or 10 ppm astaxanthin. They also tended to be heavier (P<0.10) than pigs fed 25 ppm astaxanthin. For the overall Phase 2 period (d 14 to 28), pigs fed antibiotic had greater (P < 0.05) ADG than pigs fed 0, 5, and 25 ppm astaxanthin; the pigs fed 10 ppm astaxanthin had intermediate ADG. Pigs fed antibiotic had greater (P<0.05) ADFI than pigs fed all other treatments. Feed efficiency was improved (quadratic, P<0.07) as the level of astaxanthin increased to 10 ppm and then returned to control values at the 25 ppm level. Pigs fed antibiotic had poorer (P<0.05) F/G than pigs fed 0, 5, or 10 ppm astaxanthin, and pigs fed 25 ppm astaxanthin had poorer (P<0.05) F/G than pigs fed 10 ppm astaxanthin. Overall (d 0 to 28), ADG, ADFI, and average weight on d 28 were improved (P<0.05) by including a feed-grade antibiotic in the diet. Pigs fed 25 ppm astaxanthin or a feed-grade antibiotic had poorer (P<0.05 and P<0.10, respectively) F/G than pigs fed 10 ppm astaxanthin. In conclusion, the growth performance of pigs receiving 5, 10, or 25 ppm of astaxanthin in the Phase 1 and Phase 2 diets was not different than that of pigs fed the negative control diet. However, ADG and ADFI were improved by including a feed-grade antibiotic in the Phase 1 and Phase 2 diets.
Open Access
An evaluation of arabinogalactan (larafeed® ag) as a nutraceutical growth promoter in starter diets for weanling pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:45:26Z) Bergstrom, J.R.; Woodworth, J.C.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Tokach, Michael D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; jnelssen; mtokach; dritz; jderouch; goodband
A nursery study was conducted at the KSU Segregated Early-Weaning Facility to evaluate the effect of dietary arabinogalactan on weanling pig performance. Arabinogalactan is a water-soluble proteoglycan/polysaccharide, most commonly harvested from the bark of the Western Larch (Larix occidentalis) tree, which has demonstrated neutraceutical properties in a limited number of studies with dogs and foals. A total of 288 pigs (initially 14.9 lb) were used in the 35-d experiment. Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted to one of eight dietary treatments fed throughout Phase 1 (d 0 to 14) and Phase 2 (d 14 to 28), followed by a common diet during Phase 3 (d 28 to 35). Four levels of arabinogalactan (0, 0.05, 0.10, and 0.20%) were included in either a negative or positive control diet in a 2 × 4 factorial to form the eight dietary treatments. The negative control diet was a corn-soybean meal based diet without feed-grade antibiotics. The positive control diet was identical to the negative control, but contained a feed-grade antibiotic (Neo-Terramycin with 140 g of neomycin and 140 g of oxytetracycline per ton). The common diet fed during Phase 3 did not contain arabinogalactan, but did contain a feed-grade antibiotic (Neo-Terramycin). From d 0 to 14 (Phase 1), ADG, ADFI, and d 14 weight decreased (linear, P<0.05) with increasing level of arabinogalactan in the diet. Also, pigs fed the positive control diet were heavier (P<0.05) on d 14 than those fed the negative control. During Phase 2 (d 14 to 28) and for the overall treatment period (d 0 to 28), ADG, ADFI, and d 28 weight were improved (P<0.01) for pigs fed the positive control diet compared with pigs fed the negative control. Due to the reduction in ADFI at the highest level (0.20%) of arabinogalactan, ADFI decreased (linear, P<0.05) from d 0 to 28 with increasing arabinogalactan. From d 28 to 35 (Phase 3), when all pigs were fed a common diet, ADG and F/G were poorer for pigs previously fed the positive control. Overall (d 0 to 35), ADG tended to be improved (P<0.07), and ADFI and d 35 weight were improved (P<0.05) for pigs fed the positive control, but F/G was slightly poorer (P<0.05) than for pigs fed the negative control. A reduction (linear, P<0.05) in ADFI was observed for pigs fed increasing arabinogalactan. In conclusion, the addition of arabinogalactan to weanling pig diets did not improve growth performance with the high level (0.20%) resulting in reduced ADFI. However, ADG, ADFI, and d 35 weight were improved by including a feed-grade antibiotic in the Phase 1 and Phase 2 diets.
Open Access
Evaluation of a pcv2 vaccine on finishing pig growth performance and mortality rate
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:44:24Z) Jacela, J.Y.; Tokach, Michael D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Dritz, Steven S.; dritz; mtokach; jderouch; goodband; jnelssen
A total of 2,553 pigs (PIC L337 × C22) were used in two experiments in a commercial research barn to evaluate the effects of a commercially available Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) vaccine on finisher pig growth rate, feed efficiency, and mortality rate. Pigs in Exp. 1 were vaccinated at 9 and 11 wk of age while pigs in Exp. 2 were vaccinated earlier at 5 and 7 wk of age. In Exp. 1, 1,300 pigs were individually weighed and the vaccine treatment administered 15 and 1 d before being placed on test in the finisher. In Exp. 2 1,253 pigs were used and randomly allotted based on nursery pen average pig weight and the vaccine treatment administered 41 and 27 d before being placed on test in the finisher. Pen weights were obtained on d 0 and every 2 weeks until the end of the trial. Feed intake was recorded on a pen basis. In Exp 1, growth rate, feed intake, feed efficiency, and mortality were improved (P<0.05) in vaccinated pigs compared to unvaccinated pigs. In Exp. 2, there was a vaccine by sex interaction (P<0.01) for ADG 2. The interaction was the result of the vaccine increasing ADG to a greater extent in barrows than in gilts. The interaction for ADG resulted in a vaccine by sex interaction for market weight (P<0.05). Vaccinated barrows were 10.6 lb heavier compared to unvaccinated control barrows while vaccinated gilts were only 2.1 lb heavier than unvaccinated gilts at market. In Exp. 2, ADFI and F/G were numerically better and mortality rate was decreased for vaccinated pigs compared to control pigs. In both experiments, mortality rates were lower (P<0.05) in vaccinated pigs. Vaccinated pigs had 2.6 and 5.9% less mortality than nonvaccinated pigs in Exp. 1 and 2, respectively. The commercial PCV2 vaccine used in this study was effective at reducing mortality and increasing growth rate in finisher pigs with histopathologic lesions suggestive of Porcine Circoviral Disease (PCVD).
Open Access
Effects of γ-butyrobetaine and l-carnitine on carnitine concentrations in various muscle tissues of finishing pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:43:54Z) Benz, J.M.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Tokach, Michael D.; Goodband, Robert D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Dritz, Steven S.; jnelssen; mtokach; goodband; jderouch; dritz
The primary method of L-carnitine production, similar to the biological process that occurs in the liver and kidneys, is from microbial fermentation of γ-Butyrobetaine. Therefore, the objective of this study was to see if supplementing the diet with γ-Butyrobetaine would increase organ and muscle tissue carnitine concentrations. One-hundred-twenty-five barrows were fed diets containing either L-carnitine (100 ppm), γ-Butyrobetaine (100 ppm) or a combination of L-carnitine (50 ppm) and γ-Butyrobetaine (50 ppm). The addition of L-carnitine, γ-Butyrobetaine and the combination of L-carnitine and γ-Butyrobetaine increased (P<0.01) free carnitine concentration in the longissimus, diaphragm, and heart. L-carnitine and the combination of L-carnitine and γ-Butyrobetaine increased (P<0.01) free carnitine concentration in the kidney. Therefore, these results suggest that γ-Butyrobetaine and/or L-carnitine can be used to increase carnitine concentrations of organ and muscle tissues.
Open Access
Effects of varying creep feeding duration on proportion of pigs consuming creep feed and pre-weaning performance
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:42:49Z) Sulabo, R.C.; Wiedemann, E.J.; Jacela, J.Y.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; jnelssen; dritz; jderouch; goodband
A total of 54 sows (PIC Line 1050) and their litters were used in this study to determine the effects of varying durations of creep feeding on the rate of pigs consuming creep feed (eaters) and pre-weaning performance. Two groups of sows were blocked according to parity and date of farrowing and allotted to three experimental treatments using a randomized complete block design. Creep feeding was initiated at d 7, 14, and 18 from birth for a duration of 13, 6, and 2 d of creep feeding. A creep diet (1,585 kcal ME/lb, 1.56% TID Lys) with 1.0% chromium oxide was offered ad libitum until weaning (d 20) using a rotary creep feeder with hopper. A single lactation diet (1,586 kcal ME/lb, 0.97% TID Lys) was used where sows were allowed free access to feed throughout lactation. Piglets were weighed individually at d 0 (birth), 7, 14, 18, and 20 to calculate total and daily gains. Daily creep feed intake per litter was recorded and calculated. Fecal samples from all piglets were taken twice per sampling day using sterile swabs at d 14, 18, and 20 for Treatment 1; at d 18 and 20 for Treatment 2; and d 20 for Treatment 3. Piglets were categorized as ‘eaters’ when fecal sample was colored green at least once on any of the sampling days. Overall, there were no differences in weaning weights (P<0.61), total gain (P<0.38), and daily gain (P<0.38) among pigs and litters fed creep for different durations. Total creep feed intake of litters fed creep for 13 and 6 d were greater (P<0.0001) than those litters provided creep feed for 2 d. There were no differences (P<0.69) in overall creep intake between litters fed for 13 and 6 d. Litters provided with creep feed for 13 d produced 10% more (80 vs. 70%; P<0.03) eaters than litters fed creep for both 6 and 2 d. There were no differences (P<0.98) in the percentage of eaters between litters fed creep for 6 and 2 d. In conclusion, longer durations of creep feeding did not affect pre-weaning gain and weaning weights but did increase the proportion of eaters in whole litters; however, a relatively high percentage of pigs (70%) were classified as eaters by providing creep feed for only 2 d prior to weaning.
Open Access
The effects of two true-ileal-digestible lysine concentrations, Optipak®, ractopamine hcl (paylean®), and their combinations, on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs reared in commercial facility
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:42:16Z) Bergstrom, J.R.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Tokach, Michael D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; dritz; jnelssen; jderouch; goodband
A total of 1,207 pigs (PIC, 337 × 1050) were used in a 28-d experiment in a commercial research barn to evaluate the effects of two true ileal digestible (TID) lysine concentrations, Optipak®, ractopamine HCl, and their combinations, on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs. There were 6 replicates per treatment (with the exception of one treatment that had 5), and 19 to 26 pigs per pen. Pigs were weighed at approximately 220 lb and allotted to six, corn-soybean meal-based dietary treatments. Four diets were formulated to 0.80% TID lysine: a control diet, the control diet with 5 lb/ton of Optipak®, the control diet with 4.5 g/ton of ractopamine HCl, or the control diet with both Optipak® and ractopamine HCl. The two remaining diets were formulated to 0.94% TID lysine and contained 4.5 g/ton of ractopamine HCl, with or without 5 lb/ton of Optipak®. The treatment structure provided for two 2 × 2 factorial arrangements of treatments. The first factorial utilized the four 0.80% TID lysine diets to evaluate the effects of Optipak® and ractopamine HCl. The second factorial utilized the four diets containing ractopamine HCl to evaluate the effects of TID lysine and Optipak®. Pigs fed diets containing ractopamine HCl had improved (P<0.04) ADG, F/G, and final weight. In the diets containing ractopamine HCl, ADFI tended (P<0.07) to be lower for pigs fed 0.94% TID lysine. There were no other differences in growth performance among the treatments. For carcass characteristics, plant live weight, hot carcass weight, and dressing percentage were improved (P<0.04) for pigs fed ractopamine HCl. Additionally, loin depth increased (P<0.03) when Optipak® was included in the diet. This experiment provides further evidence that ractopamine HCl improves late-finishing growth performance, hot carcass weight, and dressing percentage. Although Optipak® did not improve growth performance, it increased loin depth. The different responses to ractopamine HCl and Optipak® suggest that the incentives for justifying their use need to be evaluated independently.
Open Access
Effects of phytobiotics (biomin® p.e.p.) on nursery pig performance
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:41:46Z) Sulabo, R.C.; Jacela, J.Y.; Neher, F.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Tokach, Michael D.; Goodband, Robert D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Dritz, Steven S.; jderouch; mtokach; goodband; dritz; jnelssen
A total of 192 weanling pigs (initially weighing 12.9 lb and 22 ± 2 d of age, PIC) were used in a 42-d growth assay to determine the effects of phytobiotic (Biomin® P.E.P. 125 and 125T) addition to nursery pig diets on post-weaning growth performance. Pigs were blocked by initial weight and randomly allotted to one of four treatments: 1) negative control (feed containing no antibiotic or phytobiotic); 2) negative control + phytobiotic 1 (125 g/ton of Biomin® P.E.P. 125); 3) negative control + phytobiotic 2 (125 g/ton of Biomin® P.E.P. 125T), and 4) positive control (feed containing 140 g/ton of neomycin sulfate and 140 g/ton of oxytetracycline HCl; Neo/OTC). Each treatment had six pigs per pen and eight replications (pens). Phase 1 and Phase 2 diets were fed from d 0 to 14 and d 14 to 42 post-weaning, respectively. Pigs were weighed and feed intake was determined weekly to calculate ADG, ADFI, and F/G. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design using the MIXED procedure of SAS with pen as experimental unit. Overall (d 0 to 42), pigs fed Neo/OTC had greater ADG (P<0.03) and ADFI (P<0.01) than pigs fed the negative control or diets with phytobiotics. Addition of phytobiotics to the nursery diet also increased (P<0.02) daily gains (5.3 to 6.1%) and reduced (P<0.01) F/G (3.5 to 4.0%) compared to pigs fed diets without antibiotics. No differences (P>0.38) were observed in ADFI between pigs fed the negative control diet and pigs fed either phytobiotic. Pigs fed diets containing either phytobiotic had improved (P<0.01) F/G compared with pigs fed diets with Neo/OTC. However, pigs fed diets with Neo/OTC had similar (P=0.26) F/G compared to pigs fed diets without antibiotics. No differences (P>0.52) were observed in ADG, ADFI, and F/G between pigs fed diets with phytobiotic 1 and 2. In conclusion, phytobiotics in nursery diets improved post-weaning growth performance compared to pigs fed diets without antibiotics. However, the improvement in growth rate was intermediate between diets fed with and without in-feed antibiotics. Further research is needed to elucidate specific modes of action that caused positive effects in post-weaning growth and efficiency.
Open Access
Effects of pcv2 vaccine on the growth performance of pigs and mortality rate in a pcv2-positive commercial swine herd
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:40:38Z) Jacela, J.Y.; Sulabo, R.C.; Bergstrom, J.R.; Tokach, Michael D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Dritz, Steven S.; dritz; mtokach; jderouch; goodband; jnelssen
A total of 1,470 pigs were used to study a commercial sow herd with a history of Porcine Circovirus Disease (PCVD). The objective was to evaluate the effect of two commercially available Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) vaccines on growth and mortality rates. The first vaccine was administered one week after weaning (1-dose) while the second was administered at weaning and repeated three weeks later (2-dose). A third group of unvaccinated pigs served as a control group. Pigs were individually weighed at weaning (d 0), d 113, 143, and just prior to market. On d 113, pigs on the 2-dose treatment were heavier (P<0.05) than the control group, and the 1-dose treatment pigs were intermediate. At d 143, just prior to when the first pigs were marketed, both the 1-dose and the 2-dose pigs were heavier than the control pigs by 7.6 and 10.2 lb (P<0.05), respectively, and there were no significant differences in weights between the two vaccinated groups. However, differences in weights between the vaccinated and the control pigs were smaller at off-test compared to differences at d 143 due to a wider variability in on-test days as a result of multiple marketing days prior to end of the trial. Although there were no significant differences between the two vaccinated groups, ADG was greater (P<0.05) in all vaccinated pigs compared to non-vaccinated control pigs from d 0 to d 113, d 143, and at off-test. From d 113 to 143 and until the day they were taken off test, there were no differences in ADG, regardless of treatment. This suggests that the increase in growth rate in vaccinated pigs occurred during the period d 0 to 113. Barrows consistently exhibited greater ADG and heavier weights (P<0.05) than gilts throughout the trial. No significant differences in mortality rate between treatments were observed but both vaccinated groups had mortality rates that were 3% lower than the non-vaccinated control pigs. Based on these results, both commercial vaccines were effective in mitigating the effects of PCV2 virus and improving the growth performance of pigs in a PCV2 positive herd.
Open Access
Effects of lactation feed intake and creep feeding on sow and piglet performance
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-20T13:39:27Z) Sulabo, R.C.; Jacela, J.Y.; Wiedemann, E.J.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; jnelssen; dritz; jderouch; goodband
A total of 84 sows (PIC, Line 1050) and their litters were used to determine the effects of lactation and creep feeding on sow and piglet performance. Three groups of sows were blocked according to day of farrowing and parity and allotted to four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial with lactation feed intake (ad libitum vs. restricted) and creep feeding (none vs. creep) as factors. Piglets were cross-fostered within each block to standardize litter weights and litter size (>11 pigs). A common lactation diet (1,586 kcal ME/lb, 0.97% TID Lys) was used in the study. From d 3 of lactation, ad libitum sows were allowed free access to feed while restricted sows were fed 25% less than those fed ad libitum. A pelleted creep diet (1,585 ME/lb, 1.56% TID Lys) with 1.0% chromium oxide was offered to creep-fed pigs from d 3 to weaning (d 21). Piglets were weighed individually at d 3, 7, 14, and 21. Amount of creep feed consumed was determined daily. Fecal samples from all creep-fed pigs were taken on d 7, 14, and 21 and fecal color was assessed to categorize pigs as eaters or non-eaters. Sow weight and P2 backfat thickness (6.5 cm from the midline over the last rib) were measured after farrowing and at weaning. There was no interaction between lactation feed intake and creep feeding. Ad libitum feeding of sows reduced BW loss (-33.0 vs. -52.9 lb; P<0.01), improved total (P<0.04) and daily (P<0.04) gains of litters, and increased (90 vs. 71%; P<0.03) the percentage of sows returning to estrus by d 14 compared with limit-fed sows. Creep feeding did not affect (P>0.30) sow BW and backfat loss, but increased days to estrus (5.4 vs. 4.9 d; P<0.03) for sows that returned to heat by 14 d. Creep feeding tended to improve litter weaning weights (132.7 vs. 124.9 lb/d; P<0.09) by reducing mortality rate after cross-fostering (3.9 vs. 7.3%; P<0.06). Total creep feed intake of litters did not differ (2.24 vs. 2.28 lb/litter; P<0.93) between ad libitum and limit-fed sows. About 60% of the creep-fed pigs were categorized as eaters. Of those identified as eaters, 23, 20, and 57% began consuming creep feeding from d 3 to 7, 7 to 14, and 14 to 21, respectively. From d 0 to 28 post-weaning, there was no effect of creep feeding on d 28 weights (P<0.93), ADG (P<0.86), ADFI (P<0.93), and F/G (P<0.95) compared to non-creep fed pigs. Eaters tended to be heavier until d 28 post-weaning (P<0.16) and had greater (P<0.06) ADG and total gains than non-eaters and no creep pigs. In conclusion, creep feeding improved survivability, but had no effects on pre-weaning gain and sow performance. Low feed intake during lactation negatively affected both sow and litter performance. Creating more eaters in whole litters may be beneficial in improving post-weaning performance.
Open Access
Effects of increasing added choice white grease in corn and sorghum-based diets on growth performance and fat quality characteristics of finishing pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-19T15:28:37Z) Benz, J.M.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; dritz; jnelssen; jderouch; goodband
One hundred twenty crossbred barrows and gilts (TR4 × 1050) with an initial weight of 119.9 lb were used in an 83-d experiment to evaluate the effects of increasing added fat to corn or sorghum-based diets on growth performance and fat quality characteristics of finishing pigs. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial based on grain source (corn or sorghum), gender, and added fat (0, 2.5, or 5% choice white grease, CWG). At the end of the trial, jowl fat and backfat samples were collected. Pigs fed sorghum-based diets had increased (P<0.01) ADG compared with pigs fed corn-based diets. Pigs fed increasing CWG had increased (P<0.01) ADG. Pigs fed corn-based diets tended to have improved (P<0.06) dressing percentage, 10th rib BF, and percentage lean when compared with pigs fed sorghum-based diets. Barrows tended to have greater (P<0.06) dressing percentage and decreased (P<0.07) percentage lean when compared to gilts. Pigs fed increasing CWG had increased (P<0.02) 10th rib backfat, tended to have increased (P<0.08) hot carcass weight, and tended to have decreased (P<0.07) percentage lean. There was a fat level by grain source interaction (P<0.03) for percent C 18:2 fatty acids and iodine value in jowl fat. The interaction was due to the greatest increase in IV and percentage C 18:2 fatty acids occurring when CWG was increased from 2.5 to 5% for corn-based diets, while the greatest increase was from 0 to 2.5% CWG for sorghum-based diets. Despite this interaction, adding CWG increased (linear, P<0.02) percentage C 18:2 fatty acids and iodine value in jowl fat. Pigs fed corn-based diets had increased (P<0.01) iodine values and percentage C 18:2 fatty acids in jowl fat and backfat compared with pigs fed sorghum-based diets. Increasing dietary CWG increased (P<0.01) iodine value in jowl fat and backfat, increased (P<0.01) percentage C 18:2 fatty acids in backfat, tended to increase (P<0.06) percentage 18:2 fatty acids in jowl fat, and decreased (P<0.01) percentage saturated fatty acids in jowl fat and backfat. In summary, substituting sorghum for corn in diets for finishing pigs can be an effective way to reduce iodine value without affecting growth.
Open Access
Effects of dried distillers grains with solubles on growth performance and fat quality of finishing pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-19T15:27:33Z) Benz, J.M.; Linneen, S.K.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; jderouch; mtokach; dritz; jnelssen; goodband
A total of 1,112 pigs were used in a 78-d growth assay evaluating the effects of increasing dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS, 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20%) on pig growth performance and carcass characteristics. At the end of the trial, jowl fat, belly fat, and backfat samples were collected and analyzed for fatty acid profile and iodine value (IV). From d 0 to 78, ADG and ADFI decreased (linear; P<0.04) with increasing DDGS with the greatest reduction occurring between pigs fed 15 and 20% DDGS. Feed efficiency tended to improve (P<0.06) for pigs fed 5% DDGS compared with those fed other dietary treatments. Increasing DDGS decreased (P<0.04) carcass weight and percent yield. There was no difference (P>0.22) in loin depth, but increasing DDGS tended to decrease (P<0.09) backfat and fat-free lean index (FFLI). Backfat, jowl fat, and belly fat iodine values and percentage C 18:2 fatty acids increased (linear, P<0.02) with increasing DDGS in both the “topped” pigs marketed 21 d before trial conclusion and pigs marketed at trial completion. Increasing DDGS decreased (linear, P<0.05) percentage saturated fatty acids in backfat and belly fat in both marketing groups and percentage saturated fatty acids in jowl fat with increasing DDGS in the diet in the pigs marketed at trial completion. Barrows had decreased (P<0.04) belly fat iodine values and percentage 18:2 fatty acids when compared to gilts. Barrows also had increased (P<0.05) jowl fat and belly fat percentage 18:2 fatty acids when compared to gilts. Based on these results and previous research trials, dried distillers grain with solubles from this source can be fed up to 15% before seeing reductions in ADG; however, the increase in iodine value and decrease in dressing percentage must be considered in determining the economic value of DDGS.
Open Access
Effects of dried distillers grains with solubles and extruded expelled soybean meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of grow-finish pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-19T15:25:12Z) Benz, J.M.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; dritz; jnelssen; jderouch; goodband
A total of 120 barrows (maternal line PIC 1050) with an initial BW of 105.7 lb were used in an 83-d trial to study the effects of dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) and extruded expelled soybean meal (EESM) on growth performance and fat quality. Pigs were blocked by weight and randomly allotted to one of six treatments with two pigs per pen and 10 pens per treatment. Diets were: a corn-soybean meal control diet with no added fat, corn-EESM diet with no added fat, corn-EESM diet with 15% DDGS, corn-soybean meal diet with 15% DDGS, and 1.55% choice white grease (CWG), corn-soybean meal diet with 3.25% CWG, and corn-soybean meal diet with 4.7% CWG. Diets were formulated to have three dietary iodine value (IV) levels (42, 55, and 62) to compare the impact of fat source within dietary IV levels. On d 83, jowl and backfat samples were collected. Pigs fed the control diet, EESM, or 4.7% CWG had increased ADG compared with pigs fed the diet containing EESM with 15% DDGS. Pigs fed the control diet had increased ADFI compared with all other treatment. Pigs fed EESM with 15% DDGS and the diets with 4.7% CWG had improved F/G compared with pigs fed the control and pigs fed DDGS with CWG. Pigs fed high CWG had greater (P<0.05) loin depth compared with pigs fed low CWG. Pigs fed either of the diets with 15% DDGS had increased backfat IV compared with pigs fed diets without DDGS. Pigs fed EESM had increased backfat IV when compared with the control diet or diets with 3.25 or 4.7% CWG. Adding DDGS to the diet or using EESM increased IV of jowl fat. Adding CWG to the control diet also increased IV of jowl fat. Feeding ingredients with higher levels of unsaturated fat, such as EESM and DDGS, had a greater impact on fat IV than CWG even when diets were formulated to similar IV levels.
Open Access
Effects of different creep feeder designs and feed accessibility on creep feed consumption and litter performance
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-19T15:24:41Z) Sulabo, R.C.; Wiedemann, E.J.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; Goodband, Robert D.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; jnelssen; dritz; goodband; jderouch
The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of different creep feeder designs and increased feed accessibility on creep feed consumption and pre-weaning performance. A total of 54 sows (PIC Line 1050) and their litters were used in this study. Two groups of sows were blocked according to parity and date of farrowing using a randomized complete block design and allotted to three experimental treatments: Treatment 1 – rotary feeder with hopper (Control), Treatment 2 – rotary feeder without hopper, and Treatment 3 – pan feeder. A creep diet (1,585 kcal ME/lb, 1.56% TID Lys) with 1.0% chromium oxide was offered ad libitum at d 18 until weaning (d 21). A single lactation diet (1,586 kcal ME/lb, 0.97% TID Lys) was used, where sows were allowed free access to feed throughout lactation. Piglets were weighed individually at d 0 (birth), 18, and 21 (weaning) to calculate total and daily gains. Litter creep feed intake as feed disappearance was also calculated. Fecal samples from all piglets were taken twice using sterile swabs between 3 and 12 h before weaning for all treatments. Piglets were categorized as ‘eaters’ when the fecal sample was colored green at least once on any of the two samplings. Results showed no differences in pig (P<0.18) and litter (P<0.51) weights at weaning among litters using the different types of creep feeder. Total and daily gains of pigs (P<0.20) and litters (P<0.31) were also similar across treatments. Litters using the rotary feeder without the hopper or the pan feeder had 2.7 times greater (P<0.0001) total creep disappearance than those using the rotary feeder with the hopper. The average feeding frequency was 1, 2.3, and 4.2 times per 12 h for the rotary feeder with and without the hopper, and the pan feeder, respectively. Creep feeder design influenced (P<0.0001) the proportion of eaters created among piglets provided with creep feed. There were 69, 47, and 42% eaters in creep-fed litters using the rotary feeder with a hopper, rotary feeder without hopper, and pan feeder, respectively. In conclusion, the proportion of eaters in creep-fed litters can be influenced by non-dietary factors, such as creep feeder design.
Open Access
Effects of dietary electrolyte balance and molasses in diets with dried distillers grains with solubles on growth performance in nursery and finishing pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-19T15:23:27Z) Feoli, C.; Williams, S.M.; Gugle, Terry L.; Carter, S.D.; Cole, N.A.; Hancock, Joe D.; jhancock
Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of dietary electrolyte balance (dEB) and(or) molasses in diets with dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) on growth performance of nursery and finishing pigs. For Exp. 1, 126 nursery pigs (35 d old and average wt of 22.5 lb) were used with six pigs/pen and seven pens/treatment. Treatments were a corn-soybean meal-based control and diets with 30% DDGS without and with 0.93% sodium bicarbonate to adjust the dEB back to that of the control diet. Pigs fed the control diet had greater ADG (P<0.03) and ADFI (P < 0.08) but did not differ (P>0.58) in F/G compared to pigs fed diets with DDGS. Addition of sodium bicarbonate to nursery diets with 30% DDGS did not improve (P>0.3) growth performance. For Exp. 2, a total of 70 gilts (average wt of 196 lb) were assigned with two pigs/pen and five pens/treatment. The pigs were fed experimental diets for 26 d, a common diet for 6 d, and then reassigned to a different treatment for an additional 26-d assay. The end result was 10 pens/treatment. Treatments were a corn-soybean meal-based control and diets with 40% DDGS without and with molasses (5%) and sodium bicarbonate (none, 1, and 2%). Pigs fed the control diet had greater (P<0.001) ADG, ADFI, and better (P<0.03) F/G compared to those fed diets with DDGS. Adding molasses and(or) sodium bicarbonate did not affect ADG (P>0.26), ADFI (P>0.16), or F/G (P>0.24). In conclusion, adding sodium bicarbonate and(or) molasses to diets with high inclusion of DDGS did not improve growth performance in nursery or finishing pigs.
Open Access
Effects of choice white grease or soybean oil on growth performance and carcass characteristics of grow-finish pigs
(Kansas State University. Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 2009-10-19T15:21:58Z) Benz, J.M.; Tokach, Michael D.; Nelssen, Jim L.; DeRouchey, Joel M.; Goodband, Robert D.; Dritz, Steven S.; mtokach; dritz; jnelssen; jderouch; goodband
A total of 144 barrows and gilts (PIC) with an initial BW of 97 lb were used to evaluate the effects of dietary fat source and duration of feeding on growth performance and carcass fat quality. Dietary treatments included a corn-soybean meal control diet with no added fat or a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement with 5% choice white grease (CWG) or soybean oil and with-drawal of the fat 0, 14, 28, or 56 days before market (82 days). At the end of each feeding duration, pigs were switched to the control diet. At the end of the study (d 82), jowl fat and backfat samples were collected. Lengthening the duration of feeding soybean oil increased (quadratic, P<0.01) ADG and improved F/G. Increasing the feeding duration of CWG had no effect on ADG, but improved (quadratic, P<0.01) F/G. Increasing the feeding duration of CWG or soybean oil increased (quadratic, P<0.02) dressing percentage with the improvement being greater (P<0.06) for pigs fed CWG compared to pigs fed soybean oil. Gilts had increased (P<0.01) iodine value (IV; more unsaturated fat) compared to barrows. Increasing feeding duration of either soybean oil or CWG increased (quadratic, P<0.01) IV compared to pigs fed the control diet. In summary, adding fat to the diet improved pig growth performance but increased jowl fat and backfat IV. Feeding fat during any stage influenced jowl IV at market with duration of feeding having the greatest response with soybean oil.